Smartphone-Mediated Informal English Learning Within Learners’ ZPDs

Resumo

This study investigates how smartphones mediate learning processes within learners’ Zones of Proximal Development (ZPDs) among Brazilian English majors. A mixed-methods design combined questionnaires (n = 220), semi-structured interviews, smartphone screen recordings, and analysis of interactions in a WhatsApp group. The findings indicate that learners primarily engage in human–computer interactions, including algorithmic feedback, multimedia input, and digital language tools. These interactions predominantly support receptive skills such as reading and listening and foster self-regulation and the gradual internalization of linguistic knowledge. Interpersonal mediation through smartphones occurs less frequently and is largely asynchronous and text-based, limiting opportunities for synchronous collaborative scaffolding. Although smartphones offer valuable affordances for self-directed language learning, they do not fully replace the developmental benefits of direct human interaction. The study highlights the need for pedagogical initiatives that integrate smartphone-mediated practices with interactive and productive language activities, enabling learners to expand ZPDs beyond algorithmic mediation.